Macroalgae as Alkalizing Marine Drugs with a Low Potential Renal Acid Load

Storz, Maximilian Andreas

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/9683391

Journal of Food Biochemistry

On this page

Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion Conclusion Data Availability Additional Points Disclosure Conflicts of Interest Authors’ Contributions Acknowledgments Supplementary Materials References Copyright Related Articles

Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2024 | Article ID 9683391 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/9683391

Macroalgae as Alkalizing Marine Drugs with a Low Potential Renal Acid Load

Maximilian Andreas Storz¹

Academic Editor: Rotimi Aluko

Received28 Sept 2023

Revised06 Apr 2024

Accepted17 Apr 2024

Published08 May 2024

Abstract

A growing interest in more sustainable and alternative food sources has brought seaweed and macroalgae to the spotlight for the general worldwide cuisine. Algae are often praised for their high nutritional value and are rich in potassium, calcium, and magnesium. Abundant in base precursors, algae are particularly interesting from an acid-base perspective. Their unique biochemical composition suggests a low potential renal acid load (PRAL), which is a commonly used estimate for the amount of acid or base a certain food produces in humans. Here, we analyzed the PRAL value of n = 106 macroalgae. Results suggested a strong alkalizing potential, with a mean PRAL value of −86.76 mEq/100 g. The lowest PRAL values were found for Laminaria ochroleuca (−286.78 mEq/100 g), Gelidium micropterum (−268.46 mEq/100 g), and Palmaria palmata (−259.16 mEq/100 g). We observed a strong inverse relationship of PRAL with algae’s potassium content (Spearman’s rho = −0.79, ) and a moderate relationship with algae’s calcium content (Spearmen’s rho: −0.34, ). Our data point at a potential role for several macroalgae as potent alkalizing marine drugs and suggest that a 10 g edible portion of some algae alone could contribute to a substantial PRAL reduction of up to −28.68 mEq. This might be of particular importance for individuals who benefit from a more alkaline diet and warrants further investigation in future studies.

1. Introduction

A growing interest and awareness for more sustainable and alternative food sources and gradual changes toward more plant-based dietary patterns have brought seaweed and macroalgae to the spotlight for the general worldwide cuisine [1]. Traditionally popular in Asia [2], macroalgae are often praised for their high nutritional value [3–5]. Macroalgae are considered good sources of fiber, omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, selenium, iodine, and vitamin B₁₂ [1, 6–9]. They are also abundant in calcium, magnesium, and potassium [10–13].

The combination of these nutritional features and the biochemical composition of algae is particularly interesting from an acid-base perspective on foods. Foods rich in alkali precursors (particularly potassium salts and magnesium salts) and low in phosphorus and phosphate additives are usually characterized by a low PRAL (potential renal acid load) value [14–16].

The PRAL value is the most commonly used estimate for the amount of acid or base a certain food produces in the human body [17, 18]. Low PRAL values indicate that a specific food is abundant in base precursors, whereas high values indicate that a food is rich in acid precursors [19, 20]. Typical examples of acidifying high-PRAL foods include fish, cheese, and meats [21, 22]. Alkalizing low-PRAL foods, on the other hand, are largely of plant-based origin, including tomatoes, kale, spinach, raisins, carrots, and celery [23, 24].

The PRAL value of different algae has rarely been subject to a dedicated and systematic PRAL quantification in the scientific literature. We deemed this to be important, however, because the popularity of seaweeds and macroalgae is rapidly increasing in Western societies [25–27]. Macroalgae also have a varying nutritional profile, depending on their origin and the surrounding environmental conditions in which they grow [28, 29]. Further to that, harvesting and processing techniques are also supposed to affect algae’s nutrient content. As such, a “one-size-fits-all” PRAL estimation for algae in general might be too imprecise, and family or genus-specific approaches are warranted.

Here, we argue that macroalgae could be used as potent marine drugs with strong alkalizing properties due to their very specific nutritional profiles, which could help in offsetting the health repercussions from a high dietary acid load. We hypothesized that algae would be largely characterized by alkalizing properties due to their high calcium and potassium content. We also hypothesized that significant differences in PRAL between the different algae phyla/classes (Chlorophyta, Rhodophyta, and Phaeophyceae) exist. Finally, we sought to identify those macroalgae candidates with the strongest alkalizing properties, examining their potential use to reduce the overall acid load burden from diet.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Data Extraction

We extracted the nutrient content of the examined macroalgae from previous publications in the field of phycology. For this, we identified original articles and scientific reviews using three different search engines: PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. The following search terms were used in various combinations during the search process: macroalgae, seaweed, nutrients, calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus, composition, and minerals. The search was restricted to publications from the last 15 years. Only articles in English language were considered. Reference lists and cross-references as well as Google Scholar’s “cited by” function were used to capture additional articles of interest. Only macroalgae with a complete nutrient composition profile (including protein and the following minerals: calcium, magnesium, potassium, and phosphorus) in g or mg/100 g were considered. No data were imputed and incomplete profiles for PRAL-relevant nutrients were not considered. The literature research was performed in July 2023.

2.2. Potential Renal Acid Load Estimation

PRAL (in mEq/100 g) was estimated using the commonly used and validated formula by Remer and Manz [16]:

PRAL (mEq/100 g) = (0.49 total protein intake (in g/100 g)) + (0.037 phosphorus intake (in mg/100 g))−(0.021 potassium intake (in mg/100 g))−(0.026 magnesium intake in (in mg/100 g))−(0.013 calcium intake (in mg/100 g)).

This formula considers the average intestinal absorption rates of anions and cations present in foods and has been tested against urinary pH in the past [30]. PRAL values were estimated for 100 g portion sizes (which reflects the standard procedure [31]) and 10 g portion sizes, which might be practically relevant for a potential future application of macroalgae as alkalizing marine drugs.

2.3. Statistical Analysis

Data were analyzed with STATA 14 statistical software (StataCorp. 2015. Stata Statistical Software: Release 14. College Station, TX: StataCorp LP). Histograms and Stata’s Shapiro–Wilk test were used to check whether the examined data were normally distributed or not. Normally distributed data were described with the mean and standard deviation, whereas non-normally distributed data were described with the median and interquartile range in parenthesis. We also used the rank-based nonparametric Kruskal–Wallis H test to check for statistically significant differences in selected nutrients between the examined algae phyla. A value <0.05 was considered statistically significant. Further to that, we ran Spearman’s rank-order correlations to assess the relationship between the content of selected nutrients and PRAL for the examined algae items. Scatterplots and separated scatter plots were created to visualize the results.

3. Results

3.1. Sample Description

We identified n = 106 macroalgae items with a complete nutrient profile to estimate the PRAL [32–47]. Of these, n = 28 belonged to the Chlorophyta phylum, n = 52 belonged to the Rhodophyta phylum, and n = 26 belonged to the Phaeophyceae class. The majority of the analyzed macroalgae originated from India (n = 35), followed by Sweden (n = 22) and Russia (n = 14).

Table 1 shows the macro- and micronutrient content, as well as the PRAL value of these items in great detail. The mean PRAL value of the entire sample (n = 106 items) was −86.76 ± 87.47 mEq/100 g. Based on dry weight data only, the mean PRAL value of the sample (n = 101 items) was −90.69 ± 87.75 mEq/100 g. The lowest PRAL value was found for Laminaria ochroleuca (Phaeophyceae) with −286.78 mEq/100 g, followed by Gelidium micropterum (Rhodophyta) and Palmaria palmata (Rhodophyta) with PRAL values of −268.46 and −259.16 mEq/100 g, respectively. Approximately 11% of the sample (n = 11 algae items) were characterized by acidifying properties (as suggested by a PRAL value >0 mEq), whereas the remaining items had alkalizing properties (PRAL values < 0 mEq).

We generally observed a large heterogeneity with regard to the calcium, potassium, magnesium, and phosphorus content of the examined n = 106 algae items. The median potassium content was 2900 (3521.7) mg/100 g and ranged from 22.32 mg/100 g in Ulva flexuosa (formerly Enteromorpha flexuosa) (Chlorophyta) to 12480 mg/100 g in Palmaria palmata. The median calcium content was 1035 (1351) mg/100 g and also varied considerably, ranging from 151.4 mg/100 g in Pyropia tenera (formerly Porphyra tenera) (Rhodophyta) to 8220 mg/100 g in Delesseria sanguinea (Rhodophyta). Median magnesium and phosphorus content (in mg/100 g) were as follows: 765 (1018.48) and 214 (253). The median protein content was 15.4 (9.76) g/100 g and also varied widely across the examined food items. Gracilaria corticata (Rhodophyta) had the lowest protein content with 3.3 g/100 g, whereas Porphyra sp. had the highest with 53.9 g/100 g.

3.2. Analyses by Phylum

We additionally compared the PRAL-relevant nutrient content of the examined algae items by phylum (Chlorophyta vs. Rhodophyta vs. Phaeophyceae). For this analysis, only algae with nutrient content data based on dry weight were considered (n = 101). Significant differences between the three examined phyla were detected for protein, calcium, and magnesium. The highest median calcium and magnesium content were observed for the Chlorophyta phylum (Table 2). The PRAL values for the different phyla were as follows: −100.82 (−159.74 - (−67.35)), −74.68 (−150.91–(−20.59)), and −105.90 ± 94.66 mEq/100 g. The PRAL differences were not statistically different ().

3.3. Correlation Analyses

We ran multiple Spearman’s correlations to assess the relationship between PRAL and the micronutrient content of the examined algae items. To visualize the interrelationship, we used portion sizes of 10 g of edible algae. As expected, a moderate and significant positive correlation was found for PRAL and protein (Figure 1), with a Spearman’s rho of 0.35 (). In a similar style, Figure 2 shows the relationship between PRAL and the potassium content of the examined algae. Hereby, a strong and significant inverse relationship (Spearman’s rho = −0.79, ) was observed.

Figures 3 and 4 display the calcium and phosphorus content of the examined macroalgae and their relationship with PRAL. Calcium content was inversely associated with PRAL (Spearmen’s rho: −0.34, ), whereas phosphorus was positively associated with PRAL (Spearmen’s rho: 0.31, ). No significant relationship was observed between PRAL and magnesium content (not shown).

Figures 5–8 display phylum-separated scatterplots visualizing the PRAL value and the content of potassium, calcium, magnesium, and protein of each group. Apart from magnesium, no clear clustering was observed for the examined nutrients and PRAL values, indicating that not the phylum but the family and genus are important when it comes to the identification of alkalizing macroalgae.

4. Discussion

The present analysis explored the PRAL of n = 106 macroalgae. Results largely confirmed our hypothesis that algae have a strong alkalizing potential, with a mean PRAL value of −86.76 ± 87.47 mEq/100 g in the entire sample. We also found a strong inverse relationship of PRAL with algae’s potassium content (Spearman’s rho = −0.79, ) and a moderate relationship with algae’s calcium content (Spearmen’s rho: −0.34, ). Both are important base precursors and can be readily found in algae. The median potassium content of the examined algae (2900 (3521.7) mg/100 g) is particularly noteworthy and substantially contributed to their low PRAL values in the examined sample. A reservation must be made, though, that our results could not confirm our second hypothesis: we found no significant PRAL differences between the examined algae phyla/classes. In fact, the obtained separated scatterplots suggested that the family and genus are potentially more important when it comes to the PRAL value of algae.

Macroalgae and seaweed nowadays enjoy growing popularity in Western societies [1]. Their potential benefits in terms of dietary acid load and their alkalizing properties, however, have been rarely discussed. We raised the hypothesis that algae could be used as alkalizing agents due to their high content of base precursors. The very low (and to our best knowledge unmatched) PRAL value of many algae supports this idea. A typical contemporary Western diet produces between 60 and 100 mEq of acid per day [48, 49]. The human kidneys, in contrast, can only excrete 40–70 mEq of acid within 24 h [50]. Once that limit is reached, acid is retained in the human body, with potentially harmful effects for human health [51–56]. As summarized in a previous review, dietary acid load has been linked to several cardiovascular disease risk factors, unfavorable metabolic alterations, diabetes, and chronic kidney disease [20]. Algae could play an important role here, as our results suggest that the daily intake of only 10 g of algae may decrease the total PRAL score by up to −28.68 mEq, depending on the consumed algae type. This might be of particular importance in patients with kidney disease, who benefit from the key features of an alkaline diet [57, 58]. A reservation must be made, however, that the alkalizing effect of algae is likely variable and depended on various other factors, including harvesting and processing.

Macroalgae are also considered good sources of other important and frequently under-consumed nutrients in the human diet, including fiber, omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, selenium, iodine, and vitamin B₁₂ [1, 6–9]. Including them in menus on a more frequent basis could thus serve many concomitant purposes beyond a simple PRAL reduction. Algae supplements of particularly alkalizing species (Laminaria ochroleuca, Gelidium micropterum, and Palmaria palmata) are also a possible idea but have not yet been tested to the best of our knowledge.

While seaweeds have been suggested as important functional ingredients for a healthy diet [2], their high biosorption and accumulation capacities must also be kept in mind [1]. Some macroalgae have been reported to include high amounts of potentially harmful elements, including (but not limited to) lead, cadmium, mercury, and inorganic arsenic [59–61]. While a detailed discussion of this topic is beyond the scope of this PRAL analysis, one must keep in mind that an excessive algae consumption could be harmful, as well. Finally, algae also stand out for their high iodine content [62, 63]. While not contributing to the PRAL of algae, a regular and excessive intake of iodine could be problematic in certain individuals and patient groups, potentially inducing autoimmune thyroiditis and other adverse medical conditions [64]. Whether suitable under such circumstances remains an individual decision and warrants thorough context-specific considerations.

While our analysis fills a gap in the field of PRAL and dietetics, it has several limitations that must be considered. The cross-sectional analysis does only allow for preliminary statements, and randomized-controlled trials will be necessary to test the alkalizing potential of algae in a clinical setting. We also observed a large heterogeneity in the PRAL value of the examined macroalgae. While origin was registered, other factors were not considered in the present analysis. These include harvesting techniques, harvesting season, and processing methods to name a few. As for the origin, we mainly investigated mainly algae found in India (n = 35), Sweden (n = 22), and Russia (n = 14). Additional items came from Argentina (n = 1), Egypt (n = 13), France (n = 1), Japan and Korea (n = 3), Portugal (n = 9), and Spain (n = 8). It is known that macroalgae have a varying nutritional profile, depending on their origin and the surrounding environmental conditions in which they grow [28, 29]. The diverse origin of the examined algae items must thus be kept in mind when discussing our results.

Further to that, it must be emphasized that the laboratory methods to determine the nutrient content of the examined algae items varied from study to study. Supplementary Table 1 gives a brief overview about the employed analytical methods (Supplementary Table 1). The varying analytical techniques must also be kept in mind when glancing at our results and could pose a potential confounder.

Future studies will be necessary to explore these factors in greater detail. Despite these limitations, this analysis also builds upon a number of strengths, including its innovative character, the rigorous search strategy, and the modest sample size. Nevertheless, additional studies will be necessary to understand the role of macroalgae in PRAL management.

5. Conclusion

Many macroalgae apparently exert a strong alkalizing potential. This suggests a potential role for algae as alkalizing marine drugs for individuals who benefit from a more alkaline diet.

Data Availability

The datasets used and analyzed to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Additional Points

Institutional Review Board Statement. This study is a secondary data analysis that does not involve human participants or animals.

Disclosure

This study is a secondary data analysis that does not involve human participants or animals.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares that they have no conflicts of interest.

Authors’ Contributions

Maximilian Andreas Storz is the sole author of this article.

Acknowledgments

Open access funding was enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.

Supplementary Materials

Supplementary Table 1 gives a brief overview about the employed analytical methods that were used in the original studies to determine algae’s nutrient content (Supplementary Table 1). (Supplementary Materials)

References

National Food Institute Technical University of Denmark Denmark, M. Sá Monteiro, J. Sloth, S. Holdt, M. Hansen, and M. Hansen, “Analysis and risk assessment of seaweed,” EFSA journal. European Food Safety Authority, vol. 17, no. Suppl 2, p. e170915, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. Peñalver, J. M. Lorenzo, G. Ros, R. Amarowicz, M. Pateiro, and G. Nieto, “Seaweeds as a functional ingredient for a healthy diet,” Marine Drugs, vol. 18, no. 6, p. 301, 2020.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. F. Patarra, L. Paiva, A. I. Neto, E. Lima, and J. Baptista, “Nutritional value of selected macroalgae,” Journal of Applied Phycology, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 205–208, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Mandalka, M. I. L. G. Cavalcanti, T. B. Harb et al., “Nutritional composition of beach-cast marine algae from the Brazilian coast: added value for algal biomass considered as waste,” Foods, vol. 11, no. 9, p. 1201, 2022.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
L. Paiva, E. Lima, A. I. Neto, M. Marcone, and J. Baptista, “Nutritional and functional bioactivity value of selected azorean macroalgae: Ulva compressa, Ulva rigida, GelidiumMicrodon, and PterocladiellaCapillacea,” Journal of Food Science, vol. 82, no. 7, pp. 1757–1764, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. Kumari, M. Kumar, V. Gupta, C. R. K. Reddy, and B. Jha, “Tropical marine macroalgae as potential sources of nutritionally important PUFAs,” Food Chemistry, vol. 120, no. 3, pp. 749–757, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
V. J. van Ginneken, J. P. Helsper, W. de Visser, H. van Keulen, and W. A. Brandenburg, “Polyunsaturated fatty acids in various macroalgal species from north atlantic and tropical seas,” Lipids in Health and Disease, vol. 10, no. 1, p. 104, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
G. Silva, R. B. Pereira, P. Valentão, P. B. Andrade, and C. Sousa, “Distinct fatty acid profile of ten Brown macroalgae,” RevistaBrasileira de Farmacognosia, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 608–613, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. R. Guilherme, B. Pacheco, B. M. Soares, C. M. P. de Pereira, P. Colepicolo, and D. Dias, “Phaeophyceae and RhodophyceaeMacroalgae from the antarctic: a source of selenium,” Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, vol. 88, p. 103430, 2020.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. Taboada, R. Millán, and I. Míguez, “Composition, nutritional aspects and effect on serum parameters of marine algae Ulva rigida,” Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, vol. 90, no. 3, pp. 445–449, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. Berik and E. C. Çankırılıgil, “The elemental composition of green seaweed (Ulva rigida) collected from çanakkale, Turkey,” Aquatic Sciences and Engineering, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 74–79, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. N. Syad, K. P. Shunmugiah, and P. D. Kasi, “Seaweeds as nutritional supplements: analysis of nutritional profile, physicochemical properties and proximate composition of G. Acerosa and S. Wightii,” Biomedicine and Preventive Nutrition, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 139–144, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. Smith, G. Summers, and R. Wong, “Nutrient and heavy metal content of edible seaweeds in New Zealand,” New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 19–28, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. M. Adeva and G. Souto, “Diet-induced metabolic acidosis,” Clinical Nutrition, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 416–421, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. A. Storz and A. L. Ronco, “The 1995 potential renal acid load (PRAL) values may No longer adequately reflect the actual acid-base impact of certain foods: a hypothesis,” Nutrition and Health, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 363–368, 2023.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
T. Remer and F. Manz, “Potential renal acid load of foods and its influence on urine PH,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association, vol. 95, no. 7, pp. 791–797, 1995.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. A. Storz and A. L. Ronco, “How well do low-PRAL diets fare in comparison to the 2020–2025 dietary guidelines for Americans?” Healthcare, vol. 11, no. 2, p. 180, 2023.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. E. Adair and R. G. Bowden, “Ameliorating chronic kidney disease using a whole food plant-based diet,” Nutrients, vol. 12, no. 4, p. 1007, 2020.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. E. Ekmeiro-Salvador and M. A. Storz, “The impact of plant-based diets on dietary acid load metrics in Venezuela: a cross-sectional study,” Nutrients, vol. 15, no. 12, p. 2745, 2023.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. A. Storz, A. L. Ronco, and L. Hannibal, “Observational and clinical evidence that plant-based nutrition reduces dietary acid load,” Journal of Nutrition Sciences, vol. 11, p. e93, 2022.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
I. A. Osuna-Padilla, G. Leal-Escobar, C. A. Garza-García, and F. E. Rodríguez-Castellanos, “Dietary acid load: mechanisms and evidence of its health repercussions,” Nefrologia, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 343–354, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Narayanan and D. Wesson, “Metabolic acidosis—is it the elephant in the room?” Advances in Chronic Kidney Disease, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 327-328, 2022.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Müller, A. M. Zimmermann-Klemd, A.-K. Lederer et al., “A vegan diet is associated with a significant reduction in dietary acid load: post hoc analysis of a randomized controlled trial in healthy individuals,” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 18, no. 19, p. 9998, 2021.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. Kahleova, J. McCann, J. Alwarith et al., “A plant-based diet in overweight adults in a 16-week randomized clinical trial: the role of dietary acid load,” Clinical Nutrition ESPEN, vol. 44, pp. 150–158, 2021.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
F. Sultana, M. A. Wahab, M. Nahiduzzaman et al., “Seaweed farming for food and nutritional security, climate change mitigation and adaptation, and women empowerment: a review,” Aquaculture and Fisheries, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 463–480, 2023.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. J. Blikra, T. Altintzoglou, T. Løvdal et al., “Seaweed products for the future: using current tools to develop a sustainable food industry,” Trends in Food Science and Technology, vol. 118, pp. 765–776, 2021.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
G. Gustavsen and R. Rautenberger, “The potential of algae as food: a Norwegian survey on the willingness of consumers to try algae-made food,” in Proceedings of the in Food System Dynamics, pp. 135–144, New York, NY, USA, December 2023.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
L. E. Healy, X. Zhu, M. Pojić et al., “Biomolecules from macroalgae—nutritional profile and bioactives for novel food product development,” Biomolecules, vol. 13, no. 2, p. 386, 2023.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. O’ Brien, M. Hayes, G. Sheldrake, B. Tiwari, and P. Walsh, “Macroalgal proteins: a review,” Foods, vol. 11, no. 4, p. 571, 2022.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
L. M. Ausman, L. M. Oliver, B. R. Goldin, M. N. Woods, S. L. Gorbach, and J. T. Dwyer, “Estimated net acid excretion inversely correlates with urine PH in vegans, lacto-ovo vegetarians, and omnivores,” Journal of Renal Nutrition, vol. 18, no. 5, pp. 456–465, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Müller, J. Herter, R. Huber, and M. A. Storz, “Potential renal acid load of non-dairy plant-based milk alternatives,” International Journal of Food Properties, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 2128–2136, 2023.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Kumari, K. Singh, P. Kushwaha, and K. S. Kumar, “Evaluation of nutritional and functional properties of economically important seaweeds,” 2023, https://www.jdrasccras.com/article.asp?issn=2279-0357.
View at: Google Scholar
G. M. El Zokm, M. M. Ismail, and G. F. El-Said, “Halogen content relative to the chemical and biochemical composition of fifteen marine macro and micro algae: nutritional value, energy supply, antioxidant potency, and health risk assessment,” Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 28, no. 12, pp. 14893–14908, 2021.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. E. Cian, M. A. Fajardo, M. Alaiz, J. Vioque, R. J. González, and S. R. Drago, “Chemical composition, nutritional and antioxidant properties of the red edible seaweed PorphyraColumbina,” International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, vol. 65, no. 3, pp. 299–305, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
G. B. Martínez–Hernández, N. Castillejo, M. d. M. Carrión–Monteagudo, F. Artés, and F. Artés-Hernández, “Nutritional and bioactive compounds of commercialized algae powders used as food supplements,” Food Science and Technology International, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 172–182, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. Nova, A. Pimenta-Martins, É. Maricato et al., “Chemical composition and antioxidant potential of five algae cultivated in fully controlled closed systems,” Molecules, vol. 28, no. 12, p. 4588, 2023.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
E.-S. Hwang, K.-N. Ki, and H.-Y. Chung, “Proximate composition, amino acid, mineral, and heavy metal content of dried laver,” Preventive Nutrition and Food Science, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 139–144, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. Ganesan, K. Suresh Kumar, P. V. Subba Rao et al., “Studies on chemical composition of three species of enteromorpha,” Biomedicine and Preventive Nutrition, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 365–369, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. M. Pise and A. B. Sabale, “Biochemical composition of seaweeds along central west coast of India,” Pharmacognosy Journal, vol. 2, no. 7, pp. 148–150, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. RamuGanesan, K. Subramani, M. Shanmugam et al., “A comparison of nutritional value of underexploited edible seaweeds with recommended dietary allowances,” Journal of King Saud University Science, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 1206–1211, 2020.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
B. M. Campos, E. Ramalho, I. Marmelo et al., “Proximate composition, physicochemical and microbiological characterization of edible seaweeds available in the Portuguese market,” Frontiers in Bioscience-Elite, vol. 14, no. 4, p. 26, 2022.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. Olsson, G. B. Toth, and E. Albers, “Biochemical composition of red, green and Brown seaweeds on the Swedish west coast,” Journal of Applied Phycology, vol. 32, no. 5, pp. 3305–3317, 2020.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. Suresh Kumar, K. Ganesan, and P. V. Subba Rao, “Seasonal variation in nutritional composition of KappaphycusAlvarezii (doty) doty—an edible seaweed,” J Food SciTechnol, vol. 52, no. 5, pp. 2751–2760, 2015.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. Yanshin, A. Kushnareva, V. Lemesheva, C. Birkemeyer, and E. Tarakhovskaya, “Chemical composition and potential practical application of 15 red algal species from the white sea coast (the arctic ocean),” Molecules, vol. 26, no. 9, p. 2489, 2021.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Kumar, P. Kumari, N. Trivedi et al., “Minerals, PUFAs and antioxidant properties of some tropical seaweeds from Saurashtra coast of India,” Journal of Applied Phycology, vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 797–810, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. M. Lorenzo, R. Agregán, P. E. S. Munekata et al., “Proximate composition and nutritional value of three macroalgae: AscophyllumNodosum, FucusVesiculosus and BifurcariaBifurcata,” Marine Drugs, vol. 15, no. 11, p. 360, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. Nithya, L. Archana, P. Kokila, M. Viji, P. Murugan, and A. Maruthupandian, “The nutritional assessment on Brown macro algae LobophoraVariegata from GOMBR, Tamil nadu, India,” JOURNAL OF ADVANCED APPLIED SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, vol. 4, 2022.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. Lemann Jr, “Relationship between urinary calcium and net acid excretion as determined by dietary protein and potassium: a review,” Nephron, vol. 81, no. Suppl. 1, pp. 18–25, 1999.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. H. T. Gannon, D. J. Millward, J. E. Brown et al., “Estimates of daily net endogenous acid production in the elderly UK population: analysis of the national diet and nutrition survey (NDNS) of British adults aged 65 Years and over,” British Journal of Nutrition, vol. 100, no. 03, pp. 615–623, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. J. DiNicolantonio and J. O’Keefe, “Low-grade metabolic acidosis as a driver of chronic disease: a 21st century public health crisis,” Open Heart, vol. 8, no. 2, p. e001730, 2021.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. A. Storz and A. L. Ronco, “Dietary acid load decreases with age and is associated with sagittal abdominal diameter: a nationally representative quantification study in us adults,” Aging ClinExp Res, vol. 35, no. 10, pp. 2191–2200, 2023.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. A. Carnauba, A. B. Baptistella, V. Paschoal, and G. H. Hübscher, “Diet-induced low-grade metabolic acidosis and clinical outcomes: a review,” Nutrients, vol. 9, no. 6, p. 538, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
F. C. Mendes, I. Paciência, J. CavaleiroRufo et al., “Dietary acid load modulation of asthma-related MiRNAs in the exhaled breath condensate of children,” Nutrients, vol. 14, no. 6, p. 1147, 2022.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Tariq, J. Chen, B. Yu et al., “Metabolomics of dietary acid load and incident chronic kidney disease,” Journal of Renal Nutrition, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 292–300, 2022.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Rezazadegan, S. Mirzaei, A. Asadi, M. Akhlaghi, and P. Saneei, “Association between dietary acid load and metabolic health status in overweight and obese adolescents,” Scientific Reports, vol. 12, no. 1, p. 10799, 2022.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. Bühlmeier, C. Harris, S. Koletzko et al., “Dietary acid load and mental health outcomes in children and adolescents: results from the GINIplus and LISA birth cohort studies,” Nutrients, vol. 10, no. 5, p. 582, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
G.-J. Ko and K. Kalantar-Zadeh, “How important is dietary management in chronic kidney disease progression? A role for low protein diets,” Korean Journal of Internal Medicine (English Edition), vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 795–806, 2021.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
T. A. Ikizler, J. D. Burrowes, L. D. Byham-Gray et al., “KDOQI clinical practice guideline for nutrition in CKD: 2020 update,” American Journal of Kidney Diseases, vol. 76, no. 3, pp. S1–S107, 2020.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Witters, S. De Henauw, G. Maghuin-Rogister et al., “Arsenic and other elements in algae and dietary supplements based on algae,” 2022, https://www.sciensano.be/en/biblio/arsenic-and-other-elements-algae-and-dietary-supplements-based-algae-advice-9149-superior-health.
View at: Google Scholar
M. Chugh, L. Kumar, M. P. Shah, and N. Bharadvaja, “Algal bioremediation of heavy metals: an insight into removal mechanisms, recovery of by-products, challenges, and future opportunities,” Energy Nexus, vol. 7, p. 100129, 2022.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Dehbi, F. Dehbi, M. I. Kanjal et al., “Analysis of heavy metal contamination in macroalgae from surface waters in djelfa, Algeria,” Water, vol. 15, no. 5, p. 974, 2023.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. González, S. Paz, C. Rubio, ÁJ. Gutiérrez, and A. Hardisson, “Human exposure to iodine from the consumption of edible seaweeds,” Biological Trace Element Research, vol. 197, no. 2, pp. 361–366, 2020.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. J. Blikra, S. Henjum, and I. Aakre, “Iodine from brown algae in human nutrition, with an emphasis on bioaccessibility, bioavailability, chemistry, and effects of processing: a systematic review,” Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 1517–1536, 2022.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Hu and M. P. Rayman, “Multiple nutritional factors and the risk of hashimoto’s thyroiditis,” Thyroid, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 597–610, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar

Copyright

Copyright © 2024 Maximilian Andreas Storz. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

PDF Download Citation

Download other formats

Order printed copies

Views

28

Downloads

42

Citations